Casa ESL · B2 Upper Intermediate · Unit 10 of 20 · Step 1
Hedging & Speculation
Name
Date
Vocabulary
algorithm
nounA set of rules or instructions followed by a computer to solve a problem or complete a task.
"Social media algorithms determine what content users see in their feeds."
automation
nounThe use of technology to perform tasks with minimal human intervention.
"Automation has transformed manufacturing but displaced many workers."
bias
nounA systematic tendency in data or algorithms that produces unfair or inaccurate outcomes.
"Researchers discovered significant bias in the facial recognition software."
surveillance
nounClose observation of a person or group, especially by an authority using technology.
"The expansion of AI-powered surveillance has raised serious privacy concerns."
ethical
adjectiveRelating to moral principles and the standards of right and wrong that govern behaviour.
"The ethical implications of AI decision-making are still poorly understood."
unprecedented
adjectiveNever done or known before; without previous example.
"The speed of AI development is unprecedented in the history of technology."
transparency
nounThe quality of being open, clear, and easy to understand, especially in processes and decisions.
"There is growing demand for transparency in how AI systems make decisions."
autonomy
nounThe right or condition of self-governance; in AI, the ability of a system to operate independently.
"As AI gains greater autonomy, questions about accountability become more urgent."
Grammar Focus
Hedging and speculation
Hedging language softens claims and expresses degrees of certainty, which is essential in academic, scientific, and professional discourse. Verb-based hedging: 'tend to' (general tendency), 'appear to / seem to' (based on evidence but not certain), 'suggest' (evidence indicates). Modal hedging: 'could / may / might + infinitive' (possibility), 'would appear to' (tentative conclusion). Phrase-based hedging: 'It could be argued that...', 'Arguably,...', 'To some extent,...', 'There is reason to believe that...', 'It is possible that...'. Use hedging to avoid overgeneralisation and to acknowledge the limits of your knowledge.
AI systems tend to perform well on tasks with clearly defined parameters.
The data appears to suggest that automation will affect lower-skilled jobs disproportionately.
It could be argued that the benefits of AI outweigh the risks, but this remains contentious.
Arguably, the greatest challenge is not building intelligent systems but ensuring they are used responsibly.
Exercises
Exercise 1
Rewrite each strong claim using the hedging expression in brackets to make it more measured.
1. AI will replace most jobs. → AI many jobs in certain sectors. (tend to / could)
2. Algorithms are biased. → Algorithms biased in certain contexts. (appear to)
3. Social media is harmful to mental health. → social media has a negative impact on mental health. (It could be argued that)
4. Automation always increases inequality. → Automation increase inequality in some cases. (tend to)
5. AI cannot be creative. → AI limited in its capacity for genuine creativity. (would appear to be)
Exercise 2
Choose the most appropriate hedging expression for each academic context.
1. The evidence ___ that early exposure to AI tools improves learning outcomes.
2. ___, the regulation of AI is more important than its development.
3. Facial recognition technology ___ produce less accurate results for certain demographic groups.
Reading
The Promise and Peril of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence appears to be transforming virtually every sector of the economy, from healthcare to finance. Proponents tend to emphasise the potential for AI to solve problems that humans cannot — such as analysing vast datasets to identify patterns in disease or predicting natural disasters with greater accuracy. However, it could be argued that the technology also poses significant risks. AI systems seem to inherit and amplify the biases present in their training data, which can lead to discriminatory outcomes in areas such as hiring, lending, and law enforcement. Arguably, the most pressing concern is the lack of transparency in how AI systems reach their decisions. When an algorithm denies someone a loan or a job, the affected individual may have no way of understanding why. There is reason to believe that without robust regulatory frameworks, these problems will only intensify. To some extent, the debate mirrors earlier concerns about industrialisation: the technology itself is neither good nor bad, but the way it is deployed determines its impact on society.
1. According to the passage, what is arguably the most pressing concern about AI?
2. How does the passage compare the AI debate to earlier historical concerns?
Speaking
Discuss these questions with a partner or your teacher.
Writing
Write 5–8 sentences giving your opinion on the role of AI in education or the workplace. Use at least four different hedging expressions to present your ideas in a measured, academic tone.
Example: It could be argued that AI has the potential to personalise education in ways that were previously impossible. AI tutoring systems tend to adapt to individual learning styles, which appears to improve student engagement. However, there is reason to believe that over-reliance on technology could undermine the development of critical thinking skills. Arguably, the most effective approach would be to use AI as a supplement to, rather than a replacement for, human teachers. To some extent, the success of AI in education will depend on how thoughtfully it is integrated into existing curricula.
Answer Key — For Teacher Use
Exercise 1
1. could replace · 2. appear to be · 3. It could be argued that · 4. tends to · 5. would appear to be
Exercise 2
1. suggests · 2. Arguably · 3. tends to
Reading Comprehension
1. Arguably, the most pressing concern is the lack of transparency in how AI systems reach their decisions — affected individuals may have no way of understanding why a decision was made. · 2. The passage compares it to concerns about industrialisation, noting that the technology itself is neither good nor bad — it is the way it is deployed that determines its impact on society.