Casa ESL · C2 Mastery · Unit 8 of 20 · Step 1
Performative verbs and speech acts
Name
Date
Vocabulary
performative
adjectiveDenoting an utterance that constitutes the action it describes (e.g., "I promise" is itself the act of promising).
"The sentence "I declare this meeting open" is performative — saying it is doing it."
locutionary
adjectiveRelating to the literal meaning of an utterance — what is actually said.
"The locutionary content of "It's cold in here" is a statement about temperature."
illocutionary
adjectiveRelating to the intended force or function of an utterance — what the speaker intends to do by saying it.
"The illocutionary force of "It's cold in here" may be a request to close the window."
perlocutionary
adjectiveRelating to the actual effect of an utterance on the listener.
"The perlocutionary effect was that the listener closed the window."
felicity conditions
nounThe conditions that must be met for a speech act to be successfully performed.
"A marriage declaration only works if the felicity conditions — authorised officiant, willing parties — are met."
commissive
adjectiveDenoting a speech act that commits the speaker to a future course of action (promise, guarantee, undertake).
""I undertake to complete the work by Friday" is a commissive speech act."
directive
adjectiveDenoting a speech act intended to get someone to do something (request, order, advise).
"The manager's "suggestion" functioned as a directive — no one dared refuse."
declarative
adjectiveDenoting a speech act that brings about a change in reality by the mere fact of being uttered.
"When the judge says "I sentence you to five years," the utterance is declarative — it enacts what it states."
Grammar Focus
Performative verbs and speech acts (I hereby declare, I undertake to)
Performative verbs are unique in that uttering them constitutes the action they describe. "I promise" is itself the promise; "I apologise" is itself the apology. In formal and institutional contexts, these are often strengthened with "hereby" (I hereby declare, I hereby resign). Key performative verb categories: commissives (promise, guarantee, undertake, pledge), directives (request, order, advise, urge), declaratives (declare, pronounce, sentence, christen), expressives (apologise, congratulate, thank, welcome).
I hereby resign from my position, effective immediately.
I undertake to fulfil all obligations set forth in this agreement.
I pronounce this court adjourned until further notice.
We pledge to uphold the principles enshrined in this charter.
Exercises
Exercise 1
Identify the type of speech act in each utterance.
1. "I hereby sentence the defendant to ten years' imprisonment." — This is a:
2. "I promise to return the book by Tuesday." — This is a:
3. "I advise you to seek legal counsel before proceeding." — This is a:
4. "I sincerely apologise for the inconvenience caused." — This is a:
5. "I christen this vessel the HMS Discovery." — This is a:
Exercise 2
Complete each sentence with the appropriate performative verb: resign, undertake, pronounce, pledge, acknowledge.
1. I hereby from the Board of Directors.
2. We to allocate no less than 2% of GDP to defence.
3. I you husband and wife.
4. The organisation to comply with all applicable regulations.
5. We that errors were made in the handling of this matter.
Reading
When Saying Is Doing
The philosopher J.L. Austin, in his landmark 1962 work How to Do Things with Words, drew attention to a class of utterances that had been largely overlooked by traditional philosophy of language: those in which saying something is doing something. When a judge says "I sentence you to five years," or a monarch declares "I name this ship," or a couple at the altar says "I do," the utterance does not describe a pre-existing state of affairs — it brings one into being. Austin termed these "performatives," distinguishing them from "constatives" (statements that describe the world and can be true or false). A performative cannot be true or false; it can only succeed or fail. And its success depends on what Austin called "felicity conditions": the speaker must have the requisite authority, the circumstances must be appropriate, and the correct procedures must be followed. A random stranger cannot sentence you to prison; the words are the same, but the felicity conditions are unmet. Austin's insight — that language is not merely a tool for describing reality but a means of constituting it — has had profound implications for legal theory, gender studies, political philosophy, and our understanding of institutional power. Every time a committee chair declares "I call this meeting to order," the utterance creates the very social reality it appears merely to announce.
1. What is the distinction Austin draws between performatives and constatives?
2. Why can a random stranger not successfully "sentence" someone to prison, according to Austin's framework?
Speaking
Discuss these questions with a partner or your teacher.
Writing
Write a short formal speech or declaration (100-120 words) that uses at least four different performative verbs. The context may be institutional, ceremonial, legal, or political.
Example: Distinguished delegates, I hereby call this session to order. On behalf of the General Assembly, I welcome all representatives and acknowledge the significance of this occasion. I pledge that these proceedings will be conducted with the utmost impartiality and in full accordance with our founding charter. I urge all parties to engage constructively and in a spirit of mutual respect. I declare the forty-seventh session of the General Assembly officially open, and I commit this body to the pursuit of lasting peace, equitable development, and the rule of international law.
Answer Key — For Teacher Use
Exercise 1
1. Declarative speech act · 2. Commissive speech act · 3. Directive speech act · 4. Expressive speech act · 5. Declarative speech act
Exercise 2
1. resign · 2. pledge · 3. pronounce · 4. undertakes · 5. acknowledge
Reading Comprehension
1. Constatives describe the world and can be true or false, while performatives do not describe but enact — they bring states of affairs into being through the utterance itself and can only succeed or fail. · 2. Because the felicity conditions are not met — the speaker lacks the requisite authority (being a judge), and the correct institutional procedures are not in place, so the performative utterance fails.